B.F. SKINNER (1938): Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist, is best known for his work on operant conditioning, a type of learning in which an individual's behaviour is modified by its consequences reinforcement or punishment. Skinner's experiments with animals, particularly rats and pigeons, in specialized boxes (often called "Skinner boxes") provided evidence for this form of learning.

PRINCIPLES

1. REINFORCEMENT: Strengthens a behaviour and makes it more likely to occur again. There are two main types:
2. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: Involves adding a desirable stimulus after a behaviour to increase its frequency. For instance, giving a dog a treat after it sits on command.
3. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: Involves removing an aversive stimulus after a behaviour to increase its frequency. For example, turning off a loud alarm when pressing a button.
4. PUNISHMENT: Decreases the likelihood of a behaviour recurring. It also has two forms:
5. POSITIVE PUNISHMENT: Adding an aversive stimulus following a behaviour. E.g., scolding a child for touching a forbidden object.
6. NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT: Removing a desirable stimulus after a behaviour. E.g., taking away a toy when a child misbehaves.

EXTINCTION: When reinforcement for a previously reinforced behaviour is no longer provided, the behaviour decreases in frequency and may eventually disappear. For instance, if you stop giving a dog a treat after it sits, it might eventually stop sitting on command.

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: How often and under what conditions a behaviour is reinforced can greatly influence its strength and frequency.

CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT: Every instance of a behaviour is reinforced. It's effective for establishing a new behaviour but can lead to rapid extinction if reinforcement stops.

PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT: Only some instances of a behaviour are reinforced. This can lead to more resistant behaviour against extinction. There are various partial reinforcement schedules, like fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval schedules.

GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATION

After being reinforced for a specific behaviour, an organism may exhibit that behaviour in similar situations. A dog trained to sit for one person might also sit for others.Over time, organisms can learn to distinguish between situations where a behaviour is reinforced and where it isn't. For instance, a dog might learn to sit only when its owner gives the command.

APPLICATION: Skinner's principles of operant conditioning have been applied in various fields such as education, animal training, and therapy. Behavioural modification programs, token economies, and certain therapeutic interventions are based on these principles.

In summary, B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning theory posits that behaviour is shaped by its consequences. Through reinforcement and punishment, behaviours can be increased or decreased in frequency, guiding both animals and humans in their learning processes.

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